通訳翻訳研究の 過去・現在・未来 水野　的 1.

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1 通訳翻訳研究の 過去・現在・未来 水野　的 1

2 Trick or Treat A picture of TRICK OR TREAT: Jason Freddy the clown from "It" written by Stephen King Sadako from "The Ring", a Japanese horror movie, is sucking on a lollipop. 2

3 うる☆やつら オリジナルと北米版翻訳 ・Comparison of  "Lum: Urusei-Yatsura" in Japanese with the English version  Ataru, one of the main characters, throws beans in the face of the oni, a traditional Japanese demon. Valerio Rota: beans were re-drawn and replaced with candies, and the oni was turned into a monstrous Halloween mask. The only thing that has been replaced is Ataru's line. The speech balloon of the second line in English version is originally the one of Lum's father and this balloon has two pointers indicating the speaker. One of them was forgotten to be erased. In the North American version, Not a picture but lines (linguistic expression) are domesticated 3

4 Jakobson (1959) ‘On linguistic aspects of translation’
（言語間）翻訳とは「ある言語のメッセージを別の言語の個々のコード･ユニットで置き換えるのではなく、メッセージ全体で置き換える」ことである。 「どんな言語記号であれ、その意味は、何か別の、代わりとなる言語記号への翻訳である。」 'On linguistic aspects of translation' 'substitute messages in one language not for separate code-units but for entire messages in some other language.' 'the meaning of any linguistic sign is its translation into some, further, alternative sign.' 4

5 Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) Comparative Stylistics of French and English 等価な翻訳とは「全く異なる言葉を用いてオリジナルと同一の状況を再現すること」 2つの一般的翻訳方略 1）direct translation（直接的翻訳）literal translationと同じ意味。 2）oblique translation（間接的翻訳）：free translationに該当。 Comparative Stylistics of French and English Equivalent translation is "to reproduce the same circumstances with the original using completely different language" Two general translational method 1）direct translation: is same as literal translation 2）oblique translation：is free translation 5

6 Catford (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation
翻訳の「shifts」（ずれ）の言語学的分析 翻訳とは「起点言語のテキストの素材を目標言語の等価なテキスト素材によって代置すること」 形式的対応(formal correspondence) テクスト的等価(textual equivalence) A Linguistic Theory of Translation Linguistic analysis on shifts of translation Translation is "to replace text materials in a source language with equivalent text materials in a target language" formal correspondence textual equivalence 6

7 Nida (1964) の等価 Toward a Science of Translating
（１）形式的等価 (Formal equivalence)：形式的等価は形式と内容両面においてメッセージ自体に注意を集中する（…）受容言語におけるメッセージができるだけぴったりと起点言語のさまざまな要素に一致するよう注意する。(Nida 1964: 159) Toward a Science of Translating （１）Formal equivalence：concentrate on the message itself in terms of both form and content,  and try to keep the message in the receptor language to conform to divers elements in source language. メモ欄訳 Formal equivalence, or formal correspondence is intensively oriented to a source language. It is effective when a source text defines accuracy and validity of translation. A　typical example of this translation is gloss translation. You can find one in a footnote of an academic writing. By closely following a structure of a source language, students (because this type of translation is often used in an academic field) can have a better access to a source language and a custom of a source culture. 形式的等価、あるいは「形式的対応」(Nida and Taber 1969: 22-8)は、このように起点テクストの方を集中的に志向する。つまり起点テクストが翻訳の正確さや妥当さを決定する上で強力な力を発揮するのである。この種の翻訳の典型的な例は「注釈的翻訳」gloss translationである。これは学問的著作の脚注などによく見られるが、起点言語の構造に密接に付き従うことによって、学生たち（このタイプの翻訳はしばしば学問的環境で使われるため）が起点言語と起点文化の慣習によりよくアクセスできるようにするのである。 7

8 (2) 動的等価 (Dynamic equivalence)：
「翻訳の受容者とメッセージの関係は、オリジナルの受容者とメッセージの間に存在した関係と実質的に同一でなければならない」(Nida 1964a: 159)。 動的等価の目標は「起点言語のメッセージに対して最も密接で自然な等価」を追求すること(Nida 1964: 166, Nida and Taber 1969: 12)である。 (2) Dynamic equivalence： the relation between the receptor of translation and the message must be practically the same as that between the receptor of the original text and the message The objective of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the closest and the most natural equivalence for the message of a source language. メモ欄訳 Message should meet a linguistic demand and a cultural expectation of a receptor. With this method, translation aims for a completely natural expression. Naturalness is a key term for Nida. A target text must not show a sign of an interference from a source language. Foreignness in a setting of a source text should be maintained minimum. The last point would be criticized by strongly culture-oriented translation theorists. メッセージは受容者の言語的ニーズと文化的期待に合わせなければならない。そのようにして「表現の完全な自然さを狙う」のである。「自然さ」はナイダにとって重要な要件である。 目標テクストの言語には起点言語からの干渉の跡が見えてはならず、起点テクストのセッティングでの「異邦性」foreignnessを最小限にとどめなければならない(Nida 1964a: 167-8)。この最後の点は、後に文化的志向性の強い翻訳理論家に批判されることになる 8

9 Nida & Taber (1969:33) 9

10 10

11 From Munday (2001: 50) 11

12 動的等価の例 Lamb of God 「神の子羊」（無垢を象徴する） → seal of God 「神のアザラシ」（後に撤回）
Give us this day our daily bread. 「我等の日用の糧を今日も与えたまえ」 →　“bread”を”rice”や”fish”に変える（パンが主食でない文化において） Examples of dynamic equivalence Lamb of God (an image of innocence) →　seal of God (changed later) Give us this day our daily bread. 「 →　"bread" is changed into "rice" and "fish" in a culture where bread is not a principal diet. 12

13 Koller (1979) 1) Denotative equivalence（指示的等価）：テキストの言語外的内容の等価に関連する
2) Connotative equivalence（暗示的・含蓄的・内包的等価）：とくに同義語的な言葉の間の語彙の選択に関連する 3) Text-normative equivalence（テキスト規範的等価）：テキストタイプに関連する。テキストの種類が違えばその振る舞いも変わる。 4) Pragmatic equivalence（語用論的等価）：テキストあるいはメッセージの受け手志向の「コミュニカティブな等価」 5) Formal equivalence（文体的等価）：テキストの形と美学に関連する。言葉遊びや起点言語の個別的な文体的特徴など。あるいはexpressive equivalence（表現的等価） 1) Denotative equivalence：is relevant to the equivalence of extralinguistic contents of a text. 2) Connotative equivalence: is relevant to choice of vocabulary among synonymous words. 3) Text-normative equivalence: is relevant to text type. Different text types have different behaviors. 4) Pragmatic equivalence: is receiver-oriented communicative equivalence. 5) Formal equivalence: is relevant to the form and the athletics of a text including rhetoric and an individual writing style of a source language. 13

14 翻訳研究の嚆矢 James Holmes (1972) ‘The name and nature of translation studies’ 　翻訳研究Translation Studiesの枠組みを示す (1)実証部門 empirical branch (2)理論研究部門 theoretical branch (3)応用研究部門 applied branch Pioneering figures of Translation Studies James Holmes (1972) 'The name and nature of translation studies' The framework of Translation Studies (1)実証部門 empirical branch (2)理論研究部門 theoretical branch (3)応用研究部門 applied branch 14

15 House (1977, 1997) Translation Quality Assessment
等価は文脈 (context) によって決定される 翻訳とはSLテクストを意味論的・語用論的に等価なTLテクストに置き換えること 「顕在化翻訳」（overt translation） 「潜在化翻訳」（covert translation） House (1977, 1997) ・According to House, the equivalence is determined by the context. As factors relating to the equivalence, House points to linguistic characteristics of SL and TL, the extralinguistic world and the way to see it, linguistic custom and genre, structural, connotative and aesthetic characteristics of SL, interpretation, creativity and translation theory of the translator, and translation tradition of TL. ・What is significant is the functional, pragmatic equivalence. Translation is to replace a text in SL in semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in TL. ・2 types of translation: ◎Translation is re-contextualization. （in the sense that it extracts a language from its original context to place it in the new context where the custom and genre of communication, expectation norms of readers etc. are different.） ◎Although in a translation, the writer of the original text and the readers are separated in time and space, the translator must overcome this separation and foster a new link. In order to realize this, the translator needs to activate the relations of context and link the text to the old and new contexts. Overt translation: An overt translation is one in which the addressees of the translation text are quite ‘overtly’ not being directly addressed. It values the universal meaning of the text rather than readers. Covert translation: A covert translation is a translation which enjoys the status of an original source text in the target culture. 15

16 Houseの文化フィルター 翻訳は「再文脈化」 re-contextualization である。
翻訳者は起点言語の再文脈化のために、異なる文化的慣習（文化的選好パタン）を発見しなければならない。 文化フィルターの目的はSLとTLの受容者（recipients=読者）の「期待規範」expectation normsの違いを調整することにある。 Translation is re-contextualization. Because its aim is functional equivalence, the original text is manipulated at the level of its language / text and register. Translators must be careful of the new context where he or she sets the translated text. In order to smoothly realize this insertion, the translator applies cultural filters to the target language through the translation process. Cultural filters aim at the adjustment of the differences in expectation norms between recipients of SL and TL. For re-contextualization of SL, translators must find the different cultural conventions (cultural preference patterns) 16

17 Dimensions of Communicative Preference
German 直接性 directness 明示性 explicitness 内容に焦点 focus on content English 間接性 indirectness 暗示性 implicitness 人に焦点 focus on persons （For instance, German is more direct and explicit and values contents more than English. ） directness vs. indirectness explicitness vs. implicitness focus on content vs. focus on persons ＊This can be typology. 17

18 Newmark (1981) 2つの方法 コミュニケーション重視の翻訳 (communicative translation)
　目標テクストの読者に対して生み出そうとする効果の点でナイダの動的等価と同じ。 意味的翻訳 (semantic translation) 　ナイダの形式的等価に類似している。 Newmark (1981) Semantic translation: to translate the meaning including the original context as faithfully (closely) as the meaning and syntax-structure of the target language allow. Translation at the author’s level. Communicative translation: translation aiming to give to readers of the target language the same effect as far as possible to that of the original text to its readers. Translation at the readers’ level Newmark admits that his “communicative translation” is identical to Nida’s “functional equivalence” (Newmark 2009). 18

19 翻訳手法のスライディングスケール SL Bias TL Bias 　Literal 　Free 　　 Faithful 　 　Idiomatic 　　　　　　　Semantic/ Communicative 19

20 Newmark：等価について 重要なことは、直訳というのは意味的翻訳でもコミュニケーション重視の翻訳でも最良のアプローチであると考えられることである。 コミュニケーション重視の翻訳でも、意味的翻訳と同じように、等価効果が確保できるという条件があれば、直訳的な逐語訳が最良の方法であるだけでなく、唯一妥当な方法なのである。(Newmark 1981: 39) ・What is significant is that we can consider that the word-for-word translation is considered to be the best approach for both semantic and communicative translations. “In communicative as in semantic translation, provided that equivalent effect is secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only the best, it is the only valid method of translation.” (Newmark 1981) ＊It is prescriptive. 20

21 「アレって、結局のところ、犬みたいなものじゃないの？」 直美はわからない、という顔をして不機嫌そうにそうつぶやいた。
A: Is that a dog? B: No. It is a horse. 「アレって、結局のところ、犬みたいなものじゃないの？」　直美はわからない、という顔をして不機嫌そうにそうつぶやいた。 「いや、それはちがう。馬、そう、馬みたいなものさ。でもそれは僕らにとって問題じゃない。僕らは、今夜、四谷のレストランでスパゲッティを食べた。それだけのこと―――」 Looking unconvinced, Naomi muttered grumpily, “Eventually, is that something like a dog?” “No, it’s not. It’s a horse, right, something like a horse. But that doesn’t matter for us. Tonight, we had spaghetti at the restaurant in Yotsuya. That’s it.” 21

22 操作学派 Manipulation School
Even-Zohar: 多元システム理論 Toury: 記述的翻訳研究(DTS) Lefevere: 書き換え rewritingとしての翻訳 Bassnett Hermans (3)Late 1970s to 1980s ・Manipulation School: Polysystem of litterature polysystem：Itamar Even-Zohar, Gideon Toury, Jose Lambert, Andre Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, etc. ・The Manipulation of Literature (1985) edited by Hermans explained that divers actors carry out ideological manipulations. Polysystem theory by Even-Zohar considered the literature in translation as one system functioning in a bigger social, literary and historical system of the target culture. “Even-Zohar transfers translation studies from the study to consider individual text apart from the others to the study to look at the text in the cultural and literary system in which it functions.” (Gentzler 2001) Literature in translation is a part of literary polysystem and can be both the center and periphery of the system. Literature in translation can be a bastion of conservatism and a channel for innovation. Polysystem theory shows target-orientedness, because it focuses on the translated text it self, its position and role in the TL and the relation between the translated text and the original text written by the TL. ・Andre Lefevere：Translation Studies – discipline concerned with ‘the problems raised by the production and description of translation’ It is a distinct complex area, not a part of comparative literature or linguistics. 22

23 Touryの記述的翻訳研究 Toury (1995) Descriptive Translation Studies and beyond
方法論と研究技法をできるだけ明示的なものにし、研究が間主観的に検証可能、比較可能、追試可能になるようにする すべての翻訳はすでに等価であり、これを歴史的文脈の中で詳細に記述的に研究する *The transformation of the concept of equivalence　→　<Target text-oriented> ・Gideon Toury’s descriptive translation studies (DTS): This theory tries to make the methodology and research techniques as explicit as possible so as to make individual study results testable, comparable and replicable to each other. (Toury is most famous for Descriptive Translation Studies and beyond, published in 1995) ・Toury’s concepts of DTS and Norms: DTS assumes that all translations are equivalent to their source text. In other words, equivalence is accepted as a “de facto” in all kinds of translation. Based on this assumption, Toury places specific translations in their historical context and conducts descriptive research on them. It emphasizes that a translation holds a certain position in the target text society and culture, and that this position determines the translation strategies that are employed. ・Although DTS is indeed a target text-oriented approach, it must be noted that the locus of research is not the target text itself but the process of translation revealed by the target text. The choices given, the choices made, the constraints which affected that choice, and whether these elements relate to some organizing principle—such things are the object of research. The specific procedures are as follows. 23

24 記述的翻訳研究の3段階 (1) テクストを目標文化システムの中に位置づけ、その意義あるいは受容性の如何を見る。
(2) 起点テクストと目標テクストを比較してシフト(shifts)を見出し、起点テクストと目標テクストの部分の「対応ペア」(coupled pairs)の関係を見つける。 (3) 一般化を試み、この起点テクストと目標テクストのペアの翻訳プロセスを再現する。→　これを繰り返してコーパスを拡大していく -The three phases of DTS (1) Place the (source) text within the target culture system to examine its significance or possibility of reception in the target culture. (2) Compare the ST and the TT for shifts and identify “coupled pairs”, or corresponding segments, between the source and target texts. (3) Try to generalize from the results and reproduce the translation process between the coupled pair. Repeat this to expand the corpus.

25 翻訳の適切性と受容性 翻訳者が選択する基本的規範 initial norm が起点言語の規範に従属するとき、その翻訳を「適切な翻訳」 adequate translation と呼ぶ 翻訳者が選択する基本的規範が目標言語の規範に従属するとき「受容可能な翻訳」acceptable translation と呼ぶ -The adequacy and acceptability of translation According to Toury, when the translator’s initial norms are subject to those of the ST, the TT is “adequate”. On the other hand, when it is subject to TT norms, the TT will be “acceptable”. -Evaluation of DTS by Edwin Gentzler: (1) It abandoned one-to-one notions of correspondence as well as the possibility of literary and linguistic equivalence. (2) It involves literary tendencies within the target cultural system in the production of any translated text. (3) It destabilizes the concept of an original message with a fixed identity. (4) It integrated both the original text and the translated text in the semiotic web of intersecting cultural systems. -Criticism by Gentzler: It tends to generalize or even overgeneralize from case studies (as did earlier polysystem literature).

26 等価概念の変質 翻訳規範 norms は相対的であり、時間と共に変化する。→ 規範の＜可変性＞
「実際の翻訳で現れる等価（のタイプと範囲）を決定するのはnormである」 (Toury) 「われわれは・・・全世界に向けて静かに『全面的等価は存在しない』と告げるべきである。そして我々と読者が最大限望みうるものは、何らかの最適の近似optimal approximationなのだ。それは常に可能である。」 (Lefevere) ＜等価＞の社会的・歴史的相対性の再発見 <Norms and equivalence> -Norms are relative concepts which change through time. When norms change, translations that used to be thought progressive turn out to be a mere trend, or at times even a thing of the past (Toury 1995: 63). While norms held by a certain culture or group change, those of other cultures and groups may remain conservative. -According to Toury, “it is norms which determine the type and range of equivalence realized in a translation.” In other words, he denied the feasibility of equivalence. Andre Lefevre also states as follows: “We must make clear to ourselves—to translators—this fact. We must quietly announce that there is no such thing as complete equivalence. The most that we and the readers of translations can hope for is some kind of optimal approximation. That is always possible.” -Norms have a volatile nature, and this lets us see (or ignore) the relationship between source and target texts or the original and translated text without using the concept of equivalence. Of course there are always opposing views. For example, Anthony Pym argues that it is like throwing the baby out with the bathwater. -However, norms or conventions are important as they teach us not only what we can do but also what we cannot or should not do.

27 Skopos 理論 Reiss & Vermeer (1984)
スコポス理論（Skopostheorie）は何よりも翻訳の目的(skopos)を重視する。翻訳の目的が翻訳の方法と方略を決定し、その結果として機能的に適切な翻訳が生み出される。 翻訳の起点はSLではなく「目標言語テキストのスコポス（目的）分析」になる。等価はskoposに従属し、翻訳者が達成すべき多くの目標のひとつにすぎなくなる。 Reiss and Vermeer’s Skopos Theory -Skopos is Greek for “goal” or “purpose”. Skopos theory places the purpose of translation at the forefront. The goal determines the method and strategy and leads to a functional translation. Therefore, it is crucial for translators to know the reason of translation and the use of the target text. -In this theory, translation begins not from the source text but from analyzing the skopos of the target text. Equivalence is subject to skopos, and becomes merely one of the many goals which translators must achieve.

28 Skopos 理論の翻訳プロセス (Nord)

29 Skopos理論に対する批判 起点テクストの言語的特徴やミクロレベルの特徴を目標テクストで再現することに十分な注意を払わない (Chesterman) あらゆる翻訳を評価するものさしは起点テクストであり、それは「目的」とは独立している (Koller) *Criticism -According to Chesterman (1994), the linguistic and other micro-level characteristics of the source text and their reproduction are not paid enough attention in skopostheorie. Achieving the skopos does not guarantee that the style and meaning are reflected in the translation. -Koller (1990) states that translation is evaluated based on the source text and is independent from its purpose.

30 ＜解釈的類似＞としての翻訳 Ernst-August Gutt (1991) Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context 関連性理論に基づいた翻訳理論 翻訳とは言語の解釈的使用（interpretive use）の一例である。翻訳の現象は「意図明示的伝達」(ostensive communication)という一般原理で説明可能であり、翻訳理論という独立したドメインが存在する必要はない Gutt’s theory of translation as an interpretive resemblance: -Ernst August Gutt proposed a translation theory based on relevance theory -He describes translation as an example of the interpretive use of language. According to Gutt, translation phenomena can be explained by the general principle of ostensive communication, and there is no need for a domain labeled translation.

31 Gutt の「翻訳理論」１ 翻訳とオリジナルの関係は「解釈的類似」(interpretive resemblance)の一つにすぎない
「どの点で翻訳の意図された解釈がオリジナルに類似しなければならないのかと問われれば、答はこうだ。読者にとってそれ（翻訳）が十分に関連性を持つようにする点において。つまり十分な文脈効果を提供することだ。どのように翻訳が表現されるべきかと問われるなら、答はこうだ。翻訳が読者に不必要な処理努力を要求せずに、意図された解釈を生み出すように。」 　→　「関連性の原理」 Gutt says that translations are merely an interpretive resemblance of the original. Then in what ways should a translation resemble the original? “If we ask in what respects the intended interpretation of the translation should resemble the original, the answer is: in respects that make it adequately relevant to the audience - that is, that offer adequate contextual effects; if we ask how the translation should be expressed, the answer is: it should be expressed in such a manner that it yields the intended interpretation without putting the audience to unnecessary processing effort.” (Gutt 1991: 101-2)

32 Gutt の「翻訳理論」2 翻訳は、オリジナルcommunicatorのテキストが、それが含む表意と推意とともに目標言語の読者に伝えられることとも定義される。 翻訳者の目標は、翻訳をできる限りオリジナルに解釈的に類似するようにすること、同様の文脈効果contextual effectsを与えることである オリジナルのcommunicator（著者）の意図(intentions)は、テクストに関わりなく、目標言語の読者に伝達される -In addition, the text of the original communicator must be conveyed to the target language reader along with its ideas and implications. -In other words, the goal of translation is to imitate the original in terms of its interpretive meaning; to create a similar, if not identical, contextual effect. -The important thing here is that, in translation based on the interpretive use of language (for Gutt, other uses such as descriptive use is by definition not translation), the intentions of the original communicator will be conveyed to target language readers regardless of the appearance of the source text. -The translator’s responsibility is to overcome the “context barrier”.

33 Guttへの批判 Guttは翻訳理論に「関連性」の概念を導入した以外に何を貢献したのか。目に見える成果がほとんどない。理論としても”not very illuminating” (Tirkkonen-Condit 1992)である。 関連性のランキングは誰がどのように行えばいいのか、はっきりしない。 実践的なメソッドとしてはあまりにもあいまいで、使いようがなくuseless、ないも同然。 *Criticisms toward Gutt’s theory -Gutt’s sole contribution to translation theory is that he introduced the concept of relevance. -The greatest defect is the complacency towards the ability of relevance theory to explain translation phenomena. Gutt does not criticize the ambiguity of the concept of relevance, nor does he evaluate the validity of the relevance theory in the first place. -Questionable points of relevance theory (especially when applied to translation): It takes a neo-classical stance on the rationality of human beings, that is, people are poised to make rational decisions that optimize cost and benefit. -His theory is too general to provide a universal explanation for specific translation phenomena.

34 字幕翻訳への貢献 字幕の翻訳のように省略が必要な場合 英語： I woke up THREE MINUTES AGO. スロベニア語：
英語： 　　　　 　I woke up THREE MINUTES AGO. スロベニア語： 　PRAVKAR sem se zbudila. [I JUST woke.] 　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　(Kovacic) -Gutt’s theory is effective in subtitle translation. In subtitles, where a partial reduction is inevitable, this theory provides a useful guideline. English: I woke up THREE MINUTES AGO. Slovene: [I JUST woke.] “Three minutes ago” can be associated to a “short time ago”, which leads us to “just”. Such a short translation is justified because of its “interpretive resemblance” to the original (Kovacic 247). *As we have seen, translation theory no longer needs the powerful concept of equivalence, and the general trend is a shift from emphasis on “equivalence” to “target text standards”. According to Anthony Pym, this shift is one from “natural equivalence” that assumes a “pre-existing equivalence” to “directional equivalence”, in which translators actively create equivalence. At the same time, the source text loses some of its power. As it becomes clear that languages are in hierarchical relations with each other, equivalence gradually loses its status as a scientific capital, and becomes a “dirty word”. However, despite criticism, equivalence remains a central concept in translation studies.

35 「文化的転回」 Cultural Turn 1 Bassnett and Lefevre (1990) Translation, History, and Culture 文化的アプローチ：翻訳とイデオロギーの関係、すなわち翻訳が支配的グループと被支配的グループの間の関係を維持、疑問視、変革することが焦点となる。 言語的側面が（目標言語で支配的な）イデオロギー的、詩学的な側面と矛盾する場合は後者が優先される傾向がある。書き換え=操作としての翻訳は、目標言語の文学と社会を進展させる可能性を持つが、同時に、革新を抑圧し歪曲する可能性も併せ持つ。 (5) “Cultural Turn” in the 1980s and 1990s Bassnett and Lefevre (1990) Cultural approach: The relationship between translation and ideology is highlighted here. In other words, it is focused on the translation to maintain, question, and reform the relationship between the dominant group and the dominated group. In various levels of translation, when linguistic aspect and ideological and poetological aspects contradict with each other, it tends to put the ideological and poetological aspects before the linguistic aspect. Translation as rewriting and manipulating literature has the potentiality to develop the literature and the community of the Target Language, but at the same time, it has the possibility to suppress and distort innovation. (Bassnett and Lefevere)

36 「文化的転回」 Cultural Turn 2 ポストコロニアル翻訳研究: Spivak, Niranjana
ジェンダーと翻訳：Sherry Simon 翻訳とマイノリティの関係 翻訳と政治（ゲイ文学の翻訳、児童文学の翻訳、検閲、少数派言語からの翻訳など） →Since then, researches began to focus on problems such as Postcolonial Translation Theory, Translation and Gender, Translation and Minority, Translation and Politics, such as Juvenile literature translation, translation of gay texts, inspection, and translation from minority language.

37 「文化的転回」 Cultural Turn 3 「一方向的等価」 directional equivalence の理論への移行 (Pym)
Venuti (1995) The Translator’s Invisibility Domestication vs. Foreignization: 「受容化」(domestication)に対する「異質化」(foreignization)という翻訳方略（翻訳者への抵抗の呼びかけ） Sherry Simon: Translation and Gender Tejaswini Niranjana, Gayatri Spivak: Postcolonial Translation theory Lawrence Venuti: Cultural Studies oriented ・domestication and foreignization Directional equivalence, which is a theory about translators positively producing equivalence, was stated by Anthony Pym. However, Venuti counters this “domestication” trend by stating foreignization, and calls to stand against translators.

38 「文化的転回」 Cultural Turn 4 Berman (1992) The Experience of the Foreignの影響
「翻訳行為の妥当な倫理的目的は異なるものを異なるものとして受け容れることである。」 Derrida の影響:オリジナルの安定した「意味」を転移/再現し、伝えるものとしての翻訳という定義を否定する ←Anthony Pym was influenced by the words of Antoine Berman who said “The properly ethical aim of the translating act is receiving the foreign as foreign.” ・Also, Derrida exerted influence on this theory. Derrida denies the definition of translation as transferring, reproducing, and conveying the original meaning. Since then, the though to convey the message or sense, meaning, and equivalents had the assumption that “meaning” exists there stably. However, Derrida stated that “meaning” is unstable in the first place. → Besides these studies, there are other issues which are approached culturally. For example, translating such as various cultural phenomenon like festivals and other customs, cultural vocabularies, metaphors, and proverbs.

39 社会（学）的転回 Going Social 研究の対象：　社会文化的コミュニティ、あるいはブルデューのハビトゥスの中で相互作用を行う人間のエージェントと翻訳者 あるいは異文化間交渉を行うエージェントとしての翻訳者 翻訳者と翻訳に関わる様々なエージェントの社会的役割 (6) Going Social ・ After the cultural turn in the 1980s and the 1990s, social turn followed. Daniel Sieoni and Michaela Wolf were the main researchers who lead this. They researched the agents and translators interacting with each other in the Socio-cultural community, or in habitus as Bourdieu said. (Habitus is a set of acquired patterns of thought, behavior, and taste. It is a notion which explains the mechanism of human beings becoming social. Body habitus.) Or, understanding translators as an agent or a mediator who negotiate interculturally. So, it is focused on the social role of the agent involving in translating or translators. ・Descriptive Translation Studies Descriptive Translation Studies are criticized for its biased way of studying, focusing on the Target Text of a translation and neglecting the thinking process or the translation process. (Hermans, 1999; Simeoni, 1998) The processes have relation to the outcome of the translation →Notions such as socio-cultural constraints and translation behaviour

40 様々な翻訳研究 社会言語学、カルチャル・スタディーズ、ポスト構造主義的研究・・・
語用論、談話分析、コーパス言語学、選択体系機能文法、Functional Sentence Perspective、認知言語学、認知科学、TAP ローカライゼーション(video gameを含む）、翻訳メモリ、メディア翻訳（字幕、吹き替え、ボイスオーバー、fansubbing, fandubbing） Trend of translation studies these days: Sociolinguistics, text analysis, Pragmatics, Cultural Studies, post- structuralism. Pragmatics, Corpus linguistics, Systemic Functional Grammar by Halliday, cognitive linguistics including notions such as construal, linguistic analysis by Function Sentence Perspective, cognitive science, TAP Subtitle translation including DVDs, localization including video games, translation memory, subtitle translation, dubbing translation, fansubbing, fandubbing However, these studies are poor from the cognitive aspect. The equivalence notion needs to be reexamined from this aspect. (de Beaugrande’s “equivalence of experience” attracted researchers’ interest to study about the readers’ cognitive experience.)

41 展望 社会（学）的転回の継続？ 言語（学）的再＝転回 Re-Turn? 認知的転回？
Future Prospect: Social turn may continue, but there are possibilities of linguistic turn coming again or cognitive turn coming. Possibility of Translation Studies in Japanese culture History: the Japanese way of reading Chinese classics, Christianity literature in Japan, Chinese literature written in spoken language translated in Japanese in the Edo period, translation in the Meiji period There were many conflict over the translation standard (direct translation or free translation) We can organize various views in the translation theory theoretically from the view point of translation study. It is significant to know that translation may have had the tendency to expand Japanese. →This can be argued along with the post structuralism and Benjamin’s theory. Multiple systems theory and DTS can also be used in the translation study from now on.

42 日本的文脈での翻訳研究の可能性 歴史・社会的研究：漢文訓読 切支丹文学 江戸時代の白話小説 明治時代の翻訳 規範の対立（直訳対意訳）
歴史・社会的研究：漢文訓読　切支丹文学　江戸時代の白話小説　明治時代の翻訳 規範の対立（直訳対意訳） 様々な翻訳論における主張を翻訳研究の視点から理論的に整序する 記述的研究 言語学的研究

43 通訳研究へ

44 From 「源氏物語 The Tale of Genji」
父帝は高麗の相人（人相見）（高麗人（こまうど）。実際は渤海国の使節）に、源氏の将来を占わせたいと思った。理由があって宮中に呼べないので、右大弁（うだいべん）に、源氏をあたかも彼の子のように見せかけて鴻櫨館（こうろかん）、外国賓客宿泊施設）に連れて行かせた。そこで、 The emperor wanted the fortune teller from Komaudo, present part of South Korea (actually he was a delegate from ancient Bohai state) to predict Genji’s future. There was a reason he could not invite him to the palace, so he asked Udaiben, a highly government official to pretend to be Genji’s father and to visit a guesthouse for honored foreign visitors.

45 From 湯沢質幸Tadayuki Yuzawa 『古代日本人と外国語 Ancient Japanese and Foreign Language』
相人驚きて、あまたたび、傾き（かたぶき）あやしぶ。…弁もいと才かしこき博士（はかせ）にて、言ひ交はしたることどもなむ、いと興ありける。文（ふみ＝漢詩文）など作り交はして…おもしろく作りたるに、皇子（みこ）もいとあはれなる句を作り給へるを・・・ The fortune teller was surprised and tilted his head many times…Udaiben, the highly government official, is also a prominent scholar, so their conversation was pretty interesting. They exchanged Chinese poetries they wrote. Their poems were so impressive that the prince also wrote a poetry with so much aesthetics. Invisibility of Interpreters 湯沢質幸（ゆざわただゆき） 右大弁や源氏はどのようにして相人と意思疎通をはかったのか。詩文を作って交換した。漢詩文である。口頭による意思疎通はあったのか。 問題は「言ひ交はしたる」である。これは口頭で語り合ったとしか考えられない。ではどうやって。直接中国語で話し合ったのか、通訳がいたのか。 それは分からないが、いたとしても通訳者はinvisibleである。 How did Udaiben and Genji communicate with the fortune teller? The book says they exchanged their Chinese poetries, but did they exchange their own words? The expression I would like to focus on is “they exchanged their words” It is only natural that they talked with each other, other than exchanging poetries. Then was it in Chinese or was there an interpreter? We cannot possibly know the fact, but even if there was an interpreter, the presence is invisible in the scene.

46 古代エジプトの通訳者 Interpreters in ancient Egypt.

47 1950s：個人的（思弁的）理論 Personal (speculative) Theory
Jean Herbert J.-F. Rozan G. Ilg Eva Paneth H. van Hoof Otto Kade C. Cartellieri

48 From 1960s to 1970s 個人的研究から実験心理学的研究へ Focus of research was shifted from personal research to experimental psychology. A. Treisman Oleron, P. & Nanpon, H. F. Goldman-Eisler H. Barik 研究テーマ Research Topic ： 同時通訳 と追唱(simultaneous interpreting and shadowing)、 同時通訳のエラー分析 (error analysis of simultaneous interpreting)、 ポーズ( pause)、分節化(segmentation)、スピード、 EVS（聴取ｰ発話間隔）、処理の同時性 simultaneosity of the process etc..

49 1977 NATO Symposium Venice Conference
Gerver and Sinaiko (Eds.) (1978) Language Interpretation and Communication GerverやMoser, Seleskovitchなど様々な分野の研究者が一堂に会した Researchers from various fields such as Gerver, Moser and Sleskivitch got together in the conference.

50 パリ学派の解釈理論（意味の理論） The Interpretive theory of Translation (theory of ‘sense’) by Paris school
D. Seleskovitch 意味の理論：通訳者は起点言語の言葉を目標言語に置き換える (transcode)のではなく、起点言語のスピーチを分析・理解して、即時に、そして意識的に言葉の外皮を捨て去り(deverbalization)、メッセージを引き出してそれを目標言語に再構成する The Interpretive theory of Translation: Interpreters do not transcode text of source language to that of target language. They analyze and understand what is said in source language, instantly deverbalize it, draw a message from it and reverbalize it. 通訳教育担当者を中心に大きな影響力 Very influential especially to those who teach interpreting

51 通訳のプロセス (deverbalization)
　　　　　　　　　　　　sense deverbalization reverbalization SL TL

52 言語心理学的研究 GerverとMoserのプロセスモデル ２つの同時通訳情報処理モデル
同時通訳者の情報処理（ブラックボックス）をモデル化し、同時通訳の処理を説明しようとする。 処理の同時性、注意の構造に関する理論構成が不十分 Psycho-linguistic research ・Gerver and Moser’s process model ・two models for information process in simultaneous interpretation ・Modeling simultaneous interpreters’ information process(black box), attempting to explain the process of 　　　　 　simultaneous interpretation 52

53 1986 Trieste Symposium トリエステで行われた通訳教育に関するシンポジウム。 パリ学派の「解釈理論」への批判
集学的な研究の方向性 通訳研究専門誌Interpreters’ Newsletter創刊(1988) 科学的、実証的研究へ ・An interpreting education symposium held in Trieste ・criticism of “interpretive theory” of Paris School ・new direction toward interdisciplinary research ・specialized magazine for interpreting studies “Interpreters’ Newsletter” was first published(1988) ・shift for scientific and substantial studies 53

54 Gile の「努力モデル」 通訳を情報処理を処理容量 (processing capacity) という面から扱い、通訳の失敗の原因をさぐることを目的とする 全処理容量　＞　L + M + P + (C) L=聴取（分析）努力 　　 M=記憶努力 　　 P=産出努力　　 C=調整 Gile’s effort model ・looks at the information processing in simultaneous interpretation in terms of processing capacity, trying to delve into the cause of interpreting failure ・The entire processing capacity ＞ (greater than) L＋M＋P＋(C) L = listening comprehension effort M = memorizing effort P = production effort C = adjustment 54

55 Macintoshの通訳談話処理モデル 通訳する談話の＜理解＞comprehensionから＜産出＞productionにいたる談話処理を、Kintsch and van Dijkの状況モデルで説明しようとした 通訳者は理解の過程ではミクロ命題からマクロ構造を作り上げ（例えば通訳ノート）、産出の過程ではマクロ構造からミクロ命題を引き出す Macintosh’s interpreting discourse processing model ・This model attempts to explain the discourse processing ranging from comprehension to production in the discourse to be interpreted with Kintsch and van Dijk’s situation model ・interpreters form macrostructure (e.g. interpreting notes) from micropropositions in the process of understanding, while eliciting micropropositions from macrostructure in the process of output 55

56 ＜統合・構築モデル＞Construction-Integration Model

57 1) 表層的言語表示：micropropositionに相当 2) 命題的テキストベース：macroproposition,
＜統合・構築モデル＞　その2 1) 表層的言語表示：micropropositionに相当 2) 命題的テキストベース：macroproposition, macrostructureに相当 3) 状況表示 　　　　　　2), 3)がテキストの「意味」に相当する ＜例文＞ 　When a baby has a septal defect, the blood cannot get rid of enough carbon dioxide through the lungs. Therefore, it looks purple. Construction-Integration Model part2 1) Surface representation: Equivalent to microproposition 2) Propositional text base: Text base: macroproposition, equivalent to macrostructure 3) Situation representation 2), 3) are equivalent to the “meaning” in text 57

58

59 通訳の状況モデル 状況表示 SL TL 表層的言語表示 命題的テキストベース Situation model of interpreting
　　　　　　　　　　　状況表示 　　　　　　　　　命題的テキストベース SL TL 　　　　　　　　　表層的言語表示 Situation model of interpreting Situation representation Propositional trepresentation Surface representation 59

60 1990年代の通訳研究 Setton (1999) Simultaneous Interpretation: A cognitive-pragmatic approch 語用論的・認知的同時通訳理論。関連性理論、Austin/ Searleの言語行為論、Fillmoreのフレーム意味論(frame semantics)、Johnson-Lairdのメンタルモデル理論を理論的源泉とする。 情報処理アプローチと解釈理論の認知語用論的統合？ Interpreting studies in the 1990s ・Pragmatic / cognitive simultaneous interpretation theory, based on Sperber & Wilson’s Relevance Theory, Austin / Searle’s Speech Act Theory, Fillmore’s frame semantics, and Johnson-Laird’s metal model theory ・aimed at the cognitive and pragmatic integration of information approach and interpretive theory? 60

61 Settonの同時通訳理論 通訳者は、frameやscriptsやsituation（状況の文脈）を利用して）、情報の想起、予測、推論を行なう。（予測においては命題的態度や一般的な語用論的原則、長期記憶からの推論が利用される。）このようにテキスト外の情報ソースによって、通訳者はセンテンスが完了しないうちに暫定的な近似的表現や一般化を行うことができる。 通訳者はスピーカーが意味するものを推論するソースとなるメンタルモデルを作りあげ、それを絶えず更新していく。それにより複雑なシンタックス構造に関連する（同時通訳の）困難を大幅に低減することができる。 ・Interpreters make use of frame, scripts, and situation (situational contexts) in order to recollect, anticipate, and assume information. (In anticipating, propositional attitudes, general pragmatic principles, and assumption from long-term memory are utilized.) Those information not given by the text itself (including situation and world knowledge), social rules related to the event, and various kinds of additional properties are called “thematic source.” And deduction and inference made based on combined texts or extra-text information are called “logical source.” With the help of such extra-text information source, interpreters can temporarily make approximate expressions or generalization before a sentence is completed. ・Interpreters make up a mental model which becomes the source from which they infer what a speaker means and which they keep updating all the time. By doing so, they can drastically reduce the difficulty of simultaneous interpretation related to the complicated syntactic structures. Arrangement of necessary tools looks fresh, but the model has many logical inconsistencies with no new aspects. Like Mona Baker says, Setton’s model is also a kind of information processing model. 61

62 どういう推論をしているだろうか。 絵によるヒント（のぼる）がある。また、のぼるは成績が悪い（→頭が悪い）という背景知識がある。 バカ、とカゼから「バカはカゼをひかない」という俗信を想起する。 「ほな大昔やろ」→いまのぼるはバカ、だからカゼをひかない。風邪薬は必要ない。 昔は今ほどバカではなかった。だから、買ったとしたら大昔である。 What kind of inference do we make? There are picture clues, also background knowledge that Noboru is stupid. With the words stupid and cold, we recall phrase “air-heads don’t catch cold” “That was long ago.” → Noboru is now stupid. That’s why he doesn’t catch cold. He doesn’t need medicine. He was not as stupid as he is now. So if he bought one, that must have been long ago. 62

63

64 Settonの同時通訳処理モデル EXECUTIVE SL TL 表層的言語表示 状況知識 Mental Model 世界知識
　　　　ASSEMBLER　　　　　　　FORMULATOR SL TL 　　　　　　　　　表層的言語表示 Situational knowledge Mental Model knowledge about the world surface representation 64

65 作動記憶と同時通訳研究 Daro and Fabbro (1994) 同時通訳における作動記憶と長期記憶の役割
Padilla et al. (1995) 作動記憶は通訳訓練により向上するか Chincotta & Underwood (1998) プロの通訳者がいかにして同時的発声のマイナスの影響に対処しているか Bajo et al. (2000) 通訳者は意味情報へのアクセスが速く、短期記憶能力に優れ、短期記憶を効率的に利用できる Shlesinger (2000) 同時通訳における「語長効果」やスピーチ速度による処理の効率を検証 Isham (2000) 音声通訳が手話通訳よりも語彙の想起の成績が悪いのはなぜか Ericcson (2002) 通訳のexpert performanceの構造とその獲得をどのように研究すべきか Christoffels et al. (2003） 記憶と語彙検索というタスクのパフォーマンスと同時通訳のパフォーマンスの相関を見る <working memory and simultaneous-interpretation studies> Daro and Fabbro (1994) The role of working memory and long-term memory in simultaneous interpretation Padilla et al. (1995) Interpreting training improves working memory? Chincotta & Underwood (1998) How professional interpreters deal with negative effects of simultaneous voicing Bajo et al. (2000) Interpreters are quick to access meaning related information, having a good short term memory, and able to make effective use of a short term memory. Shlesinger (2000) Examined “the effect of lengthening words” and the processing rate depending on speed of delivery. Isham (2000) Why voice interpreters are inferior to sign-language interpreters in recollection of vocabulary Ericcson (2002) How to study the structure and the acquirement of expert performance by interpreters Christoffels et al. (2003) See the correlation between task performance of memory and vocabulary search and simultaneous interpreting performance 65

66 作動記憶と同時通訳研究 Minhua Liu (2001) ‘Expertise in Simultaneous Interpreting: A working memory analysis 通訳者の作動記憶の効率的な情報処理は、通訳という特殊なタスクのパフォーマンスだけに見られるものかどうか。 Daneman and Carpernterの長期作動記憶モデルを使用 Working memory and simultaneous interpreting research ・whether efficient information processing with working memory by interpreters is unique to the special performance of interpreting ・Daneman and Carpenter’s long-term memory was used 66

67 Liu つづき 領域固有のタスクでは 通訳者 ＞ 学生 非領域固有のタスクでは 通訳者 ＝ 学生 結果 Liu Result
領域固有のタスクでは　 　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　通訳者　＞　学生 非領域固有のタスクでは 　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　通訳者　＝　学生 Liu Result ・about domain unique task interpreters > students ・about non-domain task interpreters = students 67

68 通訳研究の社会（学）的転回 1990年代：これまでの研究アプローチに加えて、 より実証的な研究+コミュニティ通訳研究
通訳（者）と異文化との関わり 通訳（者）の社会的側面（言語政策、通訳規範、通訳の場の権力関係）などがクローズアップされる (9) Social Turn on Interpreting studies In the 1990’s, more and more empirical studies were released. Thus, community interpreting became to get more attention in this period, and so did translation studies on intercultural influence and social aspects, such as linguistic policy, norms and power structure, which reflected in cultural turn and social turn.

69 通訳（翻訳）研究の方向を変えた2冊の本 (1) Hatim & Mason (1990) Discourse and the Translator 　翻訳や通訳は社会的文脈の中で生起しているコミュニカティブなプロセスである (2)　Berk-Seligson, S. (1990) Bilingual Courtroom 　通訳者を社会言語学的に分析した初の研究 In the 1990’s, two books were published, which were said to change the direction of interpreting and translation studies. Harim and Mason in 1990 said in their book “Discourse and the Translator” that “every text is in a communicative transaction in a social framework, thus, translation and interpretation are parts of communicative processes in the social context.” (2) Berk-Seligson, S. said in his book “Belingual Courtroon” published in 1990 as a first research analyzing interpreters socio-linguistically that by recording court interpreting for several hundred hours and analyzing their politeness and register, interpreters, despite common understanding, have proactively involved in the progress of trials. And he added that interpreters not only literally translate the message but also take rather a intrusive role in the court.

70 Berk-Seligsonの分析例 Prosecuting Attorney: And how old are you?
Interpreter: 　　　　　　 (How old are you?) Witness: 　　　(Twenty years old.) Interpreter: 　　I am twenty years old. Prosecuting Attorney: And what is your occupation? Interpreter: 　　(And what is your occupation?) Witness: 　　　(Working in the field.) Interpreter: 　　I am a laborer in the fields. Prosecuting Attorney: Of what country are you a citizen? Interpreter: 　　(Of what country are you a citizen?) Witness: 　　　(Of Michoacan.) Interpreter: 　　 I am from the state of Michoacan. <An example of Berk Seligson’s analysis> In a U.S. court, a Mexican farmer who crossed the border to immigrate into the U.S. illegally made a court statement. In parentheses are words spoken in Spanish. （上記対話の表記省略） The witness’s register is always something between consultative to casual l, yet the interpreter used the hyperformal register, which betrays an expectation to royally reproduce the original register.

71 1990年代の通訳研究の出来事 1994年トゥルク通訳者会議＝「通訳研究のルネサンス」
1995年新しい翻訳・通訳研究専門誌The Translator 創刊 1995年 Critical Link（コミュニティ通訳研究国際会議）開始 1996年通訳研究専門誌 Interpreting 創刊 1998年から通訳翻訳研究書誌Translation Studies Abstracts の刊行開始 In 1994, an interpreters’ conference was held in Turku, Finland, that was, as just Gile stated, very active as if “Renaissance of interpreting studies.” In 1995, a new translation and interpreting journal, titled “The Translator” was first published, as well in 1996, an interpreting study journal titled “Interpreting,” And in 1995, the Critical Link network began as international conference on community interpreting. Then, in 1998, “Translation Studies Abstracts” as interpreting studies bibliography was also release

72 最近の通訳研究の特色 ミュニティ通訳の登場 　→　相互作用という社会的コンテクストのなかで通訳が果たす機能、効能、（費用対）効果などの研究領域が拡大 会議通訳、司法通訳の他、医療通訳、手話通訳、メディア通訳の研究が増える 遠隔通訳、ウィスパリング、サイトトランスレーションなどの通訳形態への関心 同時＝逐次通訳、通訳者支援システムなど The latest move on interpreting studies The increasing prominence of community-based interpreting opened up a wide field for research on the function, effect and cost effectiveness of interpreting in its social context of interaction. And medical, broadcasting and sign-language interpreting studies have been promoted. This has generated educational research needs for previously neglected types of practice such as whispered interpreting, remote interpreting and sight translation, and some research findings have already launched about the interpreting on the effects of new technology-based forms of practice on performance quality and professional ecology.

73 ゴフマンの参与枠組みを使った研究の例 (Wadensjö 1998)
対面式相互行為における通訳者の役割と責任が動的に変化している様子を談話分析により分析する ゴフマン(Goffman 1981)の発話フォーマットに加え、聞き手の役割を「報告者としての聞き手」（reporter）、「返答者としての聞き手」（responder）、「要約者としての聞き手」（recapitulator）の３つに分類し、聞き手フォーマット（reception format）を構築し、聞き手と話し手双方のフッティングを関連付ける <Goffman’s participation framework-based study example> In 1998, Wadensjo showed a new analysis over Goffman’s Forms of Talk. He categorized listeners in three. 1. a reporter, 2. a responder 3. a recapitulator. Then, he connected the footing of the listener and the speaker, analyzed dynamic changes through discourse analysis on itnerpreter’s roles and responsibility in face-to-face interaction.

74 Wadensjö (1998) より 1 officer: can you show me where?
(handing over the passport) 2 interpreter: eh can you show where? 3 applicant: oh no. not in THIS one. not in THIS one. 4 interpreter: no not in [this one. 5 applicant:　　 [this is see, in the Soviet passport this one is a union passport isn’t it. [given to those 7 interpreter: [this is an international passport and I had in mind an internal one… Fragment 1 is English translation of a short excerpt drawn from　the encounter. In reality, the languages spoken were Swedish and Russian at a Swedish local police office. A woman asked in Russian for a permission to stay in Sweden, with a professional interpreter supporting her. When asked to show her ID, she submitted her Russian passport. However, when asked about her citizenship, she answered she has one in Greek. The officer suspecting her citizenship and nationality (or ethnic status) asked again about her citizenship with a different question. The woman insisted that she is a Greek and said, “there’ in my passport it said that I am Greek,” translated by the interpreter, and the officer asked her again. Italics mean that words were spoken in Russian, capital letters marks prosodic emphasis, two lines with parallel square parentheses, ‘[’, marks the start of parallel talk, and text within ordinary parentheses ‘( )’, describes nonverbal actions. <Conventional Analysis> Line 2 is a “close” translation. However, the subject becomes “you” in English, which cannot make a distinction from “tu” (polite expression). In that sense, it is a divergent translation. If line 3 is considered as redundant, line 4 seems to be a “close” translation. However, if line 3 is taken as an emphasis, the translation can be divergent. Line 5-6, 7-8 appear to be divergent, but they are not. If you consider then on-going activities and compared them with the expressions, you will know they are “close” translations. <Analysis based on Participation Framework> The officer’s question “can you show me where?” is directed to the interpreter as the respondent (someone who is expected to answer from his/her viewpoint). However, as the observer of changing footings, the interpreter quickly respond to it, while authoring new version of the same utterance in another language. (This is a common practice for interpreters when they are told something like “tell him to…” and “ask her if… “) In the first sequence, the interpreter keeps talking without following the primary party’s shift of footing. By doing so, the interpreter is apparently trying to maintain the order of mutual actions which he/she desires. At the same time, the interpreter put the speaker in the position of present principal when he/she had just finished talking (therefore, the interpreter retreated from the expected position of responder as well). By doing so, the interpreter can promote primary parties’ attention to direct to each other. This case shows its possibility. (*By interpreting the principal’s utterance, the interpreter becomes “the present principal.” Someone who was a principal is supposed to become a responder next in an ordinary dialogue, but he/she once retreats from the position in this case.)

75 通訳研究の今後の方向性 Pochhhacker (2004) 背景： 1．グローバリゼーション 2．テクノロジー化 方向性
背景：　1．グローバリゼーション　 2．テクノロジー化　 方向性 1．認知諸科学（状況的認知を重視） 2．言語学的志向（コンテクストにおける言語使用、状況的プロセスとしてのディスコース分析） 3．役割、権力、イデオロギーなど、社会学、文化人類学、社会心理学的研究へ Conference interpreting as well has been studied with new viewpoints. For example, Pochhacker said in 1994 that conference interpreters should not merely stay in the context of the SL speakers and the TL audience, but in the wider context in the entire conference as a macro-text. The research thesis as well transferred from “psycho” to “social” based on the framework given by Skopostheory. (Pym) ･ Recent examples for social turn in Japan are shown in “Interpreters and Postwar US-Japan Diplomat” written by Kumiko Torikai and “Interpreters at Tokyo Tribunal Court” by Kayoko Takeda. <Perspectives> Pochhacker in 2004 pointed out two trends for predicting the direction of interpreting studies. 1. Globalization 2. Advancement of technology Based on them, future studies would be done with 1. cognitive sciences (conditional recognition emphasized on social context and interaction) 2. linguistics-oriented (language usage based on contexts and discourse analysis as conditional process will be able to foresee a certain fruits as shown in community interpreting analysis as a basis of discourse analysis on face-to-face interacted interpreting.) 3. Roles, power and ideology are considered in sociology, cultural anthropology and social psychology. * As for conference interpreting, there are still a lot of challenges to be solved.

76 通訳翻訳研究方法論 質的転回：「通訳研究は今や質的転回qualitative turnの準備ができている」(Pochhacker)。状況や文脈を重視。質問紙法、エスノグラフィー、現象学など。 多元的方法論（三角測量triangulation）：異なる手法や異なる調査者による調査、異なる参加者による結果を利用して研究の確からしさを高めようとする。複数のデータソースを用いることであり、質的研究に複数の視点を与える。 <Research Methodology> ・ Qualitative turn: “Interpreting research is now ready to go into qualitative turn ” Pochhacker said. Situation and context have emphasized with some methods including questionnaires method , ethnography and phenomenology. ・ Pluralistic methodology (triangulation): triangulation is a method that different methods and different surveyors were used, or sometimes survey results from different participants are utilized to enhance the reliability of the study. In other words, with multiple data sources, qualitative researches will add multiple perspectives in the group.

77 質的研究と量的研究 Table 1: Comparison between qualitative study and quantitative study  hypothesis generation style/hypothesis testing style language and phenomenon (concept)/numeric data purposive selection(sampling)/random selection(sampling)  philosophic-sociological theory/mathematic statistical theory Table 2: classification of qualitative study micro study (personal history?)/macro study (generalization?) surveying technique personal interview/(plural) discourse analysis/focus group observational method  document analysis/consensus method research perspective case study/grounded theory approach ethnography  phenomenology 77

78 triangulationの通訳研究への応用例 Hild (2007)
※practical application of triangulation into interpreting studies Hild points out a problem of triangulation, saying “triangulation is recommended as a way to adjust gap between quantitative data and qualitative one. However, there is a problem behind this conjunction process. If you would like to make triangulation remain the robustness, you are required to indicate how the mixture of quantitative and qualitative perspective accomplished, and then, present how you acquire the deeper understanding on the subject of your research expressly.　Otherwise, your research will be impressionistic with ambiguous explanation, which will blemish the academic validity.” The next graph indicates what Hild did specifically. 78

79 研究の進め方 参考文献： Gile, D. et al. (2001). Getting Started in Interpreting Research (John Benjamins) Jenny Williams and Andrew Chesterman (2002). The MAP: A Beginner’s Guide to Doing Research in Translation Studies. (St. Jerome Publishing)

80 研究の進め方 １）研究テーマにはどんなものがあるかを知り、自分のテーマを決定する。 ・認知的研究 ・行動的研究 ・言語学的研究
　・認知的研究 　・行動的研究 　・言語学的研究 　・社会学的研究 　・通訳訓練 　・質的評価 　・reception研究 〈research procedure〉 (1) know preceding research theme and decide your own theme  ・cognitive studies ・behavioral studies note-taking preparation strategy coping technique to problems (ex. speaker’s accent and speaking speed)  time-sharing of speakers at dialogue interpreting (including turn-taking) eye-contact between interpreters and participants ・linguistic studies challenge inherent in language combination: how interpreters interpret a type of structure how and when interpreters omit or compress sentences changing of style: whether interpreters change the formal (or informal) register of speakers into neutral or not ・sociological studies/ethics/history interpreter’s code of ethics ・Interpreting Training Comparative study of performance by professional interpreters and students (with no experience in interpreting training): Comparing interpreting training methods at different kinds of educational institutions (private interpreting schools and graduate schools) ・Qualitative Evaluation Interview survey of audience on quality of interpretation from various aspects Research by various experimental methods to evaluate quality of interpretation ・Research on reception Audience’s comprehension and evaluation of interpreting 80

81 研究の進め方 2）先行研究を知る ・研究テーマをResearch Questionや仮説の形にして、同じようなテーマの研究を読む
・有益な点、不十分な点、批判すべき点を見極める ・自分の研究を研究史の中に位置づけ、研究コミュニティで何がデフォルトになっているかを知る (2) To study preceding research ・Once you decide on a theme and make a hypothesis, read more relevant literature. With a specific hypothesis in mind, you can focus your reading on articles of similar themes. Then, identify in the reading some beneficial aspects to your research, faults to be criticized, and insufficiencies. Without this process, your research could end up “reinventing the wheel.” ・By learning what kind of previous works have been done, you can locate your research in the history of the research field. It is important to conduct your research with global contemporaneousness in mind. By doing so, you can learn who and which of his/her work you should quote, and what are defaults (the minimum requirement) in the research community. 81

82 研究の進め方 3）テーマにふさわしい方法を選ぶ ・人文科学的手法 ・自然科学的手法 観察研究 実験研究 質的研究 82
　　　　観察研究 　　　　実験研究 　　　　質的研究 3) Choose an appropriate methodology To some extent, your choice of methodology will be narrowed down depending on your theme. Although interpreting research is interdisciplinary, you need to be careful because an assumption in one field of study can be regarded as preposterousness in another field. ■Some problems in methodology of interpreting research 1. Personal（speculative）theory　→　Room for existence? 2. Paradigm in the humanities (research methods in the literature or the social science could work well depending on the case). 3. Paradigm in the natural science (chosen by the majority). 　　 observational research experimental research (control experiment is not the only available experimental design) 4. Qualitative research Once you decide on which methodology to use, conduct the analysis. Then, take care of the following. 4) Findings＝report results of your research 5) Discussion＝analyze the findings 6) Summary ＝conclusion induced from the analysis 7）Reference literature 8) Appendix, data, etc. 82

83 通訳研究と翻訳研究 Interpreting Studies and Translation Studies
　翻訳研究　　　　　　　通訳研究 通訳研究はこれまで翻訳研究から様々な概念やモデルを借用して発展してきた。しかし両者には共通する要素が多く、今後は通訳研究から翻訳研究に貢献することも考えられる。作動記憶をベースにした研究は翻訳研究に用いられている様々な概念に新しい光を当てることができるだろう。 Closing remarks ・Interpretation Studies and Translation Studies Interpretation studies have been developed by borrowing various concepts and models from translation studies. However, the two academic fields share many factors, so it is now thinkable for interpretation studies to contribute to translation studies. Especially, cognitive research (in interpreting studies) might be able to shed light on various concepts used in translation studies. 83