Chapter 2 Julian Steward’s Cultural Ecology

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1 Chapter 2 Julian Steward’s Cultural Ecology
2017/05/09 Patricia K. Townsend (2009) Environmental Anthropology: From Pigs to Politics. 2nd Ed. Long Grove: Waveland Press. Chapter 2 Julian Steward’s Cultural Ecology Kiyoshi Tadokoro

2 Contents of This Presentation
Homo Sapiens’ Adaptation A Short History of Environmental Anthropology The Cultural Ecology of Julian Steward Evolution in Cultural Anthropology Cultural Ecology and the Last Northern Cod

3 Homo Sapiens’ adaptations

4 Townsendは、「私たち人類」（we humans）という言葉を、ホモ・サピエンスを含む、全てのホミニン（hominine）を指して使っている。
人類の進化

5 人類の種と存続期間 ホモ・サピエンスの誕生は約20万年前

6 人類の種の復元図 ホモ・ハイデルベルク ホモ・エレクトス （フローレンシス） ホモ・ネアンデルターレンシス ホモ・サピエンス

7 狩猟採集時代の長さ 20万年のホモ・サピエンス史を2mのタイムスケールに変換
1万年は0.001cm（0.01mm）。ホモ・サピエンスが生まれたのが20万年前＝0.02cm（0.2mm） 変換時間 年代 長さ(m) 事項 1月1日 20万年前 ホモ・サピエンスが誕生 12月28日 7万年前 認知革命（集団規模が150人に、言語、宗教） 12月31日朝の6時 1万年前 農業革命 12月31日午後23時頃 500年前 科学革命 200年前 産業革命 50年前 グローバリゼーション 1.3 0.6 0.095 0.003 0.0015 0.0005

8 狩猟採集時代の長さ 1万年は0.01cm（0.1mm）。ホモ・サピエンスが生まれたのが20万年前＝0.02cm（0.2mm） 認知革命
農業革命 科学革命 産業革命 グローバリゼーション ホモ・サピエンスの誕生 狩猟採集時代

9 人類の拡散 300万年前に乾燥した草原が拡大。 200万年前にホモ・エレクトスがアフリカの外へ移動。

10 氷河時代

11 ホモ・サピエンスによる世界へ移動と拡散

12 大型動物の絶滅 6m 3m

13 [P1] Homo sapiens’ Expansion
No species lives in such a wide range of environments as Homo sapiens. Human’s expansion: Desert Tropical and temperate forests High altitudes where trees can not grow Subtropical African savanna Extreme arctic environments Space Undersea environments

14 [P2] Homo sapiens’ Genetic Adaptations
By and large, the adaptations that made it possible for humans to spread into so many different places have not been genetic ones. Homo sapiens remain a single, interbreeding species with relatively minor differences, in spite of our past experience with environmental extremes. Pale – genetic adaptation in northern environment Sickle cell trait and certain other variants of hemoglobin – genetic adaptation for Malaria spread ホモ・サピエンスは、遺伝的適応による差異があるものの、その差異は小さなものであり交配可能な単一の種であり続けている。ということは、ホモ・サピエンスがさまざまな環境で生きることができるのは、別の種類の適応という要因が想定される。

15 Notes: adaptation Adaptation: 適応
A process of change or adjustment that is beneficial for a population, making individual organisms more suited to the stresses of their environment. 適応 ある個体群（集団）にとって有益な変化や調整の過程。このような過程を通じて、個々の生物体は環境の与えるストレスに対処する。 Environmental Anthropology, p. 103

16 Notes: evolution Evolution 進化
遺伝子あるいは遺伝的に影響を受ける形質の集団内の頻度が、世代を超えて累積的に変化すること。 内田亮子（2008）『生命をつなぐ進化の不思議――生物人類学への招待』ちくま新書。 The gradual development of plants, animals, etc. over many years as they adapt to changes in their environment. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 8th Ed.

17 Note: Sickle cell trait and certain other variants of hemoglobin
熱帯熱マラリアの死亡率は25% 西アフリカの人々の40%弱がヘモグロビンＳを保有 ヘモグロビンＳ＝鎌形赤血球 マラリアに対する抵抗力が強いが、貧血の原因にもなる。

18 [P3] Homo sapiens’ behavioral Adaptations
The adaptations that allow Homo sapiens to thrive in many different environments are largely behavioral, not genetic (adaptations). Building houses, putting on and off clothing, making tools and using them for capturing useful things (animals, plants, etc.) Most of these behavioral adaptations are socially learned. →　culture In this adaptive perspective, Cultures are seen as intimately related to the physical and biological environments. A culture is a way of life, a tool kit for survival.

19 乳糖耐性を持つ成人割合の地域差

20 A Short History of Environmental Anthropology

21 [P1] Ecological Anthropology
Julian Steward introduced the idea of cultural ecology to the field of anthropology in the middle of 20th century. → Ecological anthropology The transformation came in part from adopting the concept of ecosystem from biology.

22 Note: Ecosystem

23 [P2] Developments of USA and Europe in the 1970s
Ecological anthropology got a big boost from developments in the wider society of the US and Europe in 1970s. Population growth, economic development Outrunning of the supply of petroleum and other nonrenewable resources Health effects of industrial wastes Public interest in environmental issues Text books of Ecological Anthropology Rachel Carson

24 [P3] 1980s In 1980s, anthropology was not paying much attention to environmental questions. A loss of public interest in environmental issues Ronald Reagan’s presidency

25 [P4] 1990s By the 1990s, environmental anthropology was again at the forefront. The United Nations Conference in Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992) 　　　（国連環境開発会議） Deforestation and the loss of biodiversity United nations conference in Kyoto (in 1997) Global climate change and called for a 55% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions

26 [P5] Academic disciplines in 1990s
AAA (American Anthropological Association) Anthropology and Environment section Graduate Departments (Univ. Georgia, Univ. Washington) Programs with concentrations in environmental anthropology Environmental anthropology was no longer just an academic discipline discussed by researchers, college professors, and students. Many practitioners Applied environmental anthropologist in government agencies, NGOs, and businesses

27 [P6] Environmental Anthropology
Anthropologist’s involvement with environmental issues has become more differentiated, with a variety of methods, theories, and specialized research interest. Evolutionary ecology, historical ecology, political ecology, ethnoecology Environmental anthropology An umbrella for all of those approaches

28 [P7] Ecological Anthropology
生態人類学 In this book, Ecological anthropology means One particular type of research in environmental anthropology Field studies that describe a single ecosystem including a human population Studies in ecological anthropology A small population of only a few hundred people, such as a village or neighborhood

29 The Cultural Ecology of Julian Steward

30 [P1] Steward’s Background
Julian Steward Development of ecological anthropology At Columbia Univ. (in the late 1940s to early 1950s) Anthropologists with cultural ecology and evolution Univ. California in 1930s Great Basin area (Nevada and Utah) Western Shoshoni, Paitute, and Ute

31 [P2] Situation in the Great Basin
The indigenous societies of the Great Basin had been drastically affected by the intrusion of miners and ranchers. Grazing sheep and cattle Reduction of wild seeds (the traditional native diet) Large game = scarce in this area Deer, mountain sheep, bison, or antelope Small game were important (Rabbit etc.) Seasonal migrations – the plant life

32 [P3] Steward’s research
The Indian's 19C war with settlers The Indians left their old system of subsistence based on foraging on the land to work on ranches or in mines and tows. Steward patched together … 19C description and census His own plant collections and observations Data he collected by interviewing Indians, such as their list of the names and uses of plants

33 [P4] The Shoshoni Indian’s subsistence activities
During the pre-settler period, The Shoshoni Indians engaged in subsistence activities By one or two families moving to forage for plant foods and small game Only in the winter, They camped with 20 or 30 families living close enough to visit each other.

34 [P5] Concept of Cultural Core
Steward rejected the notion that the culture of the Shoshoni could explained only by tracing historical links. Although Steward agreed that their material culture was mostly derived from the Southwest, He considered that their economic and social organization was the result of using that technology to exploit a particular environment, the arid Great Basin with its unpredictable resources. The features of social and economic life that are most closely related to subsistence = part of the Cultural core

35 [P6] The Method of Cultural Ecology
It is not possible to know what is in the cultural core in advance. The method of cultural ecology Analyzing the relationship of the technology used in production to the environment Relating other behavioral patterns to subsistence Do people work alone or cooperatively? Asking how these behavioral patterns affect other aspects of the culture, such as kinship warfare, or religion

36 Evolution in Cultural Anthropology

37 [P1] Steward’s methods of cultural ecology
Reintroduction of the concept of cultural evolution 19C anthropology (e.g. L.H. Morgan, E.B. Tylor) All cultures evolved through a similar series of stages from simple to complex. Cultural relativism Each culture was accepted on its own terms as a product of its unique history. Attempts to find general laws or causal explanations → × Steward There were regularities to be discerned in the way that cultures change. Determining these cause and effect sequences through empirical study, that is, scientific research based on observation and comparison. Multilinear evolution (JS) / unilinear evolution (19C) （文化進化） （文化相対主義） （多系進化） （単系進化）

38 [P2] Adaptation / Evolution
The concept of multilinear evolution Elman Service and Marshall Sahlins General evolution / specific evolution General evolution = Increase in scale and complexity Specific evolution = Cultural adaptation （一般進化） （特殊進化）

39 [P3] Maladaptive cultural practice
Some cultural practices are environmentally maladaptive. Manicured front lawns Chemical fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides Offsetting gains → Reducing their use in agriculture The runoff from lawns → water pollution → kids, pets People who are environmentally aware – using lawn chemicals （適応性に欠けている）

40 [P4] Focus on the process of adaptation
Outcome of adaptation < Process of adaptation The outcome may not always be favorable Cultural ecologists who follow in Steward’s path today look at the way societies respond to change in their environment and in the cultural core.

41 Practice: グループワーク。 適応性に欠けるが、実行している文化＝生活様式はないだろうか。

42 Cultural Ecology and the Last Northern Cod

43 [P1] Fishing industry in Canada
The northern cod became scarce → moratorium in 1992 The Cod-fishing industry collapsed Thousands of fishing crews and plant workers lost their jobs. Most social scientists Economic and political factors An anthropologist Relationship of specific aspects of fishing technology →　Collapse or Catastrophe

44 [P2] Process of Cod-Fishing Industry
1960s- Foreign factory freezer trawlers started fishing intensively. A peak of catch → Steep decline Regulation of cods catch was ineffectual. Canada barred the foreign fleets, declaring exclusive control (200-mile zone). Fisheries Department- regulation. Limitation of issuing fishing licenses and keeping the total catch at a level set by the best scientific knowledge. The fisheries agency ignored the local knowledge of inshore fishing crews. In1980s, Danger signals, Catching smaller fish than previously.

45

46 [P3] Change of Technology
Changes in the technology of fishing accompanied the declining catch. Japanese cod traps Echo sounders Advanced navigation equipment Catching “the last northern cod” The Atlantic cod were commercially, if not yet biologically, extinct.

47 Japanese cod traps（底建網）

48 ハタハタの漁獲量の推移 「県民と漁業者が一丸で守るハタハタ文化」

49 沖合：　底引き網 沿岸：　底刺し網 沿岸：　定置網

50 [P4] Progress of Cultural Ecology
Steward’s approach continues to be useful. Many anthropologists and geographers Cultural ecologists / culture ≈ ecology culture > ecology (Chap. 3) culture < ecology (Chap. 4, 5) Individuals or population (≠ culture) the adaptive units that respond to the environment and form the basic units of ecosystem Human behavior (≠ culture) = focus of analysis