Japanese grammar made easy How intuitive visual images can assist in the teaching of Japanese grammar International Conference of Japanese Language Education Sydney, Australia July 10, 2014 Harumi Minagawa The University of Auckland email: h.minagawa@auckland.ac.nz
Let’s be a linguist for a moment. Teachers need to have a fresh eye for what they are teaching.
Break up the following English sentence into meaningful units. ‘(I) did not want to go.’ did (referring to the past) not (not happening) want (desire) to go (basic action)
Let’s work out how the meaning units are organized in this American Indian language! “(I) OPOTAPUNAPATTA!” Hmmm… Is this all one big word? No word boundaries like English! My informant says it is sort of one chunk of word, but it carries several meaning components… My informant broke up this long word for me…
did (referring to the past) not (not happening) want to (desire) This is “Japanese”!!! An American Indian language ‘go-want-not-did’ I O K P O I T A P K U N A K P A T T A did (referring to the past) not (not happening) want to (desire) go (action) O I P K
Typological characteristics of the Japanese language 1. An agglutinative language. 膠着語(こうちゃくご) (Many suffixes are glued together after the verbs/adjectives in Japanese) (日本語では動詞や形容詞などに形態素がたくさんつながる)
What other characteristics of the Japanese language are reflected in the following sentence? (下の文は他に日本語のどんな特徴を語っていますか。) 手紙は 私が 書きます。 2. Free word order language with postpositions As long as the verb is last in the clause and the head noun last in the noun phrase/clause, other elements can move around without changing the basic meaning. (語順が比較的自由、後置詞で統語関係を表す) 3. Topic-comment language. An element of a sentence is often topicalised, obscuring the case particles such as ga and o. (主題が助詞の「は」によって表される。学生は主題化によって が「が」や「を」隠れてしまうことになかなか気づかない。) Cf. トムはカメラだ。
What other characteristics of the Japanese language are reflected in the following sentence? (下の文は他に日本語のどんな特徴を語っていますか。) もう 食べた? 4. Context dependent language. (Regularly elements of a sentence are left out.) (相手が分かるだろうと思うことには、省略をよく使う) 8
Surface sentences and pragmatic motivations in Japanese(談話上の配慮が基本的な文法の形を左右する) Elements of a sentence do not necessarily appear in a fixed place (語順は一 定していない) Sometimes the topic marker hides the case particle which represents the semantic relations of the element of a sentence to the predicate (主題化の「は」が述語との意味関係を表す格助詞を隠してしまう) The element itself may often be elided all together (省略が多い) Right from the beginning stage, students learning Japanese are faced with surface structures that heavily reflect pragmatic motivations. (初級の段階 から談話の規則が当てはめられ、表層構造に文法の規則が見えにくい) How can they make sense of sentence structure if they try to understand it in term of linear order alone?(表面構造のみを使って説明する方法では日本語 の文法の規則は説明しにくい)
An example of a linear presentation of grammar (日本語の文の構造を語順を使って説明する典型例 ) N1 に N2 が ある N1 は N2 に ある
First word first?(文頭の言葉?) 学生: 先生!「大学に」でいいですか? 先生: 何が言いたいのですか? As students generally conceive sentence structure as something linear, some students tend to think they are building up a sentence from the first element. (文章は文頭から組み立てるという考え方が学生の 中にある)
The objectives of this session are: (このセッションの目的) to work with a non-linear diagram that illustrates Japanese grammar (語順を考慮に入れずに図を使って日本語の文法を考え てみる) to understand the sentence building mechanism in Japanese visually and intuitively(視覚と直感に訴えた文の生成方法を考え てみる) to see how the basic model is modified due to pragmatic factors (談話がどのように文の生成に関わるか考えてみる)
Let’s leave the linear representation of language behind and try to understand what happens in an event semantically. (語順の概念を捨てて、事象を意味のレベルで 考えてみよう)
が 食べました を If the event was ‘eating’. … Our guest stars in the event are: If the event was ‘eating’. … が 食べました を
What about if the event was ‘kicking’? が けりました を
Valency of verbs(動詞の項) Verbs can be understood as being born with different numbers of and different kinds of hands which are expressed by case particles(動詞によって取る項の数や種類が違う) For example, the verb taberu ‘eat’ is born with two hands, i.e. ‘someone who eats’ and ‘something that gets eaten’, which are respectively marked by the case particles ga and o. (「食べる」は 「NPが」と「NPを」と取る二項動詞) A conceptualization like this does not require linear thinking.(項 の理解に語順の概念は必要ない)
Basic valency frame: the event of ‘eating’ 「食べる」の項構造 たべます has two hands. What are the case particles that express these meanings? ‘someone who eats’ まちださん が たべます スパゲティー を ‘something that gets eaten’
Basic valency frame: the event of ‘going’ 「行く」の項構造 行きます has two hands. What are the case particles that express these meanings? ‘someone who goes’ まちださん が 行きます 学校 へ ‘a place someone goes to’
Verbs with a valency of 1 (one hand to be held)(一項動詞) For example, (が) あそぶ:子供が遊ぶ。 降る:雨が降る。 expects to occur with one noun が
Verbs with a valency of 2 (two hands to be held)(二項動詞) For example, が、を e.g. 食べる:太郎がパンを食べる。 読む:太郎が本を読む。 を expects to occur with two nouns が が、に、へ、と e.g. ある:ここに本がある。 行く:太郎がオペラに行く。 なる:太郎が先生になる。 会う:太郎が友達と会う。 に へ と
Verbs with a valency of 3 (three hands to be held)(3項動詞) expects to occur with three nouns を が For example, (が、を、に) あげる:太郎が花子に本をあげる。 する:お父さんがガレージをワークショップにする。 入れる:太郎が本をカバンに入れる。 に
What are the valencies of the following verbs? (下の動詞は項をいくつもっている?) - At this stage do not include time and place, etc. - Do not use the topic marker は. 起きる 会う 行く なる あげる 読む
Peripheral information (付加情報) You can add more information to the event, which could help set the scene, such as the time and place and the manner in which the action is carried out, etc. (基本形にもっと背景情報を付け加えてみる)
Peripheral information いつ、どこで、だれと、どうやって What other information can you add about the event? With whom Place ともだち レストラン Means Time と で はし 午後二時 で まちださん が に たべます スパゲティー を
Expanding the use of the event diagram (基本形を広げてみよう) Using this basic diagram, you can explain quite a lot of things about sentence organization, while maintaining the basic diagram. (基本形を元にもっと複雑な文が組み立てられる) Let’s look at: Modification (修飾) Interrogative sentences (疑問文) Relative clauses (連体修飾) Complementation (~こと ~のを使う名詞節)
Modification (修飾) How would you illustrate modifiers, such as these, in the diagram (次のような言葉を図の中に書き入れてみよう。): a. possessive demonstrative, (指示詞) e.g. その b. Adjectives (形容詞) 高い c. manner adverbs (副詞), e.g. 上手に、 ゆっくり d. quantity expressions (数量表現), e.g. 三つ、三人 f. frequency adverbs (頻度の副詞)、よく、ときどき Modifiers can be added to the head nouns while each constituent visually maintains its place in relation to the main verb. Words expressing frequency, manner and quantity can also be added to the diagram. (基本概念は動かない)
Modification よく With whom Place Means Time たべます を ともだち レストラン と で 午後二時 はし 午後二時 日本人の で がくせい いそいで が に その たべます ハンバーガー おおきい を みっつ
Interrogative sentences (疑問文) How would you illustrate Yes/no questions and Wh-questions? (基本形を使って疑問文を作る。) Wh-question words are shown to replace the element whose information is sought, while the basic structure remains intact. (疑問詞は名詞の場所にはめ込むだけ)
Interrogative sentences With whom Place ともだち だれ レストラン どこ Means Time と いつ はし なに・なん で 午後二時 何時に で に がくせい だれ が たべます か ハンバーガー なに を
Interrogative sentences がくせい が その どの たべます か ハンバーガー どんな おおきい を みっつ いくつ
Relative clauses (連体修飾) How would you illustrate relative clauses? A relative clause (or a noun modifying clause) can be shown to be added using the same colour and shape as other noun modifying elements such as demonstratives and adjectives. (他の名詞修飾語と同じように名詞の前につけてみる。)
Relative clauses たべます で を その レストラン えきの近くにある その がくせい が 日本人の 日本料理がきらいな その がくせい が 日本人の 日本料理がきらいな たべます ハンバーガー を おおきい
Complementization (の、こと節) How would you illustrate complementization using koto and no, such as, 太郎が 田中さんが日本に行ったことを 知っていますか。 Complementisation using koto and no is illustrated with the complement occupying the same noun slot as a normal noun. 「の、こと節」を普通の名詞と同じ場所に入れさせる
Complementization たろう が 知っています か 花子 田中さんが日本に行ったこと を
Based on this underlying basic event structure(この基本形を元に談話レベルの配慮を考える) One can now form a sentence/utterance in a linear manner, (言葉を並べてみる) because one cannot describe all the information all at once in speech or in writing, (いっぺんにすべての情報を言えない/書けないので) after deciding on(次のこと考えなければならない) the word order(語順) What to present and what to leave out(省略) What to topicalize (主題化) Which viewpoint to take in reporting the event(視点) These decisions are influenced by the context (pragmatic factors and speaker motivations). (文脈、主観で判断する) Apparent irregularities of a sentence are reflections of how these factors are applied to sentence production.(表層構造が不規則に見えるのはこのよう な判断をしてから文が作られるからである。)
Let’s now look at the pragmatic factors influencing sentence building では、コンテクストを配慮に入れて文を作ってみよう
Word order (語順) Topic at the beginning. As long as each element of the sentence stays together with the particle and as long as the modifiers precede the noun and the predicate stays in the sentence final position, the change in word order does not change the meaning of the sentence.(名詞と格助詞 は離さなければ、…) But there is a preferred order of elements. (普通の語順) Topic at the beginning. The direct object occurs close to the verb. The subject appears towards the beginning together with time and place.
Preferred word order in Japanese (if all these elements are present, which is unlikely.) (TOPIC) Temporal Locative Subject Joint action (と) Method (で) Starting point (から) Direction (に、へ) Object(を) (PREDICATE) 午後2時に レストランで 太郎が 友達と はしで スパゲティーを 食べる。
Ellipsis (省略) How would you illustrate ellipsis in the diagram? (省略を図で表す) The elided elements are shown to stay in the same slot as the original, unellipted structure. (基本形を残し、幽霊部分を作る。)
たべます You can leave some of the information out if it is understood or if it is not so important. The verb usually says. ともだち レストラン と はし で 午後二時 で まちだ さん が に たべます スパゲティー を
午後二時に 町田さんが 友だちと 食べます。 たべます と で 午後二時に で に を ともだち レストラン まちだ さん が スパゲティー 午後二時に 町田さんが 友だちと 食べます。 ともだち レストラン と はし で はし 午後二時に で まちだ さん が に たべます スパゲティー を
レストランで 町田さんが スパゲティーを 食べます。 レストランで 町田さんが スパゲティーを 食べます。 レストラン ともだち で はし と 午後二時 まちだ さん で が に たべます スパゲティー を
スパゲティーを はしで 食べます。 レストラン ともだち はし で と 午後二時 まちだ さん で が に たべます スパゲティー を
食べます。 レストラン ともだち で はし と 午後二時 まちだ さん で が に たべます スパゲティー を
Topicalisation(主題化) How would you illustrate the topic in the diagram? How an element on the semantic/grammatical plane is activated to become a topic is shown by superimposing the particle wa on the case particles, thus showing the two different dimensions of particles, i.e. those of case particles and discourse particles. (「は」は格助詞たちとは違うレベルの住人で、「は」が使われる と「が」や「を」などの格助詞が隠れてしまう。)
は は は は は は は は たべます は signals that that element is a topic, i.e. what you are talking about or asking something about. Any of the elements in pale blue can be presented as a topic. BUT often the person who is doing the action gets to become the star! ともだち レストラン は は と はし で 午後二時 は で は は まちださん は が に たべます スパゲティー は を
たべます The topic usually comes at the beginning of a sentence. (普通主題は文頭に現れる) ともだち レストラン と はし で 午後二時 で まちだ さん まちだ さん が が に たべます スパゲティー を
は まちださん たべます The topic usually comes at the beginning of a sentence. で が ともだち レストラン と はし で 午後二時 で まちだ さん が に たべます スパゲティー を
Putting your understanding into practice (図を使い、語順や、主題化、省略などに言及しながら下の文の成り立ちを説明してみましょう) Using the model, think of ways to explain the seeming irregularities of these sentences. Use the pragmatic factors at work, such as preposing, topicalization and ellipsis. The relationship between 1. and 2.(1と2の関係) The disappearance of the direct object in 3.(隠れた直接目的語) Why みっつ does not appear with を in 4.(「を」がない理由) 1 ここに 本が あります。 2 本は ここに あります。 3 ごはんは もう 食べましたか。 4 A: りんごを買いましたか。 B: はい、みっつ 買いました。
Examples (1) and (2) illustrated using our model:
1. ここに 本が あります。 ここ に あります ほん ほん が が
1. 本が ここに あります。 (Preposing) ほん が ここ に あります ほん が
は 1. ここに 本が あります。 2.本は ここに あります。(preposing, topicalising) ほん ここ あります 1. ここに 本が あります。 2.本は ここに あります。(preposing, topicalising) は ほん が ここ に あります ほん が
Example (3) illustrated using our model:
3 ごはんは もうたべましたか。(Ellipsis of Noun が) まちださん が たべます ひるごはん を
は ごはんは もうたべましたか。 (Preposing and topicalising of Noun-を) たべます ごはんは もうたべましたか。 (Preposing and topicalising of Noun-を) は ひるごはん the ellipted doer of the action of eating in (3) is still evident in the illustration, and the topicalisation of the direct object is also illustrated. を まちださん が たべます ひるごはん を
Example (4) illustrated using our model:
A: りんごを 買いましたか。 The two elements of the verb kaimashita ‘bought’ are ellipted together with the case particles, while the quantifier mittsu, as a noun phrase external element, remains with the verb. まちださん が かいます りんご を
B: はい、みっつ買いました。(ellipsis of the direct object) A: りんごを 買いましたか。 B: はい、みっつ買いました。(ellipsis of the direct object) The quantity expression みっつ looks as if it appears in place of an ellipted direct object. That’s why students often make the mistake of using a case particle with quantity expressions such as みっつを. まちださん が かいます りんご を みっつ
Concluding remarks (終わりに) There is nothing new in terms of linguistic principles in the method that I used to present grammar today. The visually appealing method of using the colours, shapes and animation of PowerPoint slides could help students to understand such linguistic principles more effectively. Internalisation of grammar is expected to occur in students’ engagements in exercises and activities in context; topicalisation and ellipsis can only be explained and learnt in discourse context; and exposure to an abundance of input is necessary for students’ language acquisition process. However, positive evidence alone is not enough for them to work out for themselves the mechanisms behind the forms, and formal intervention should be incorporated in the pedagogy. I hope that today’s presentation has shown that there may be a place for a friendly linguistic approach in present day language classes.
This presentation is based on the following papers and presentations This presentation is based on the following papers and presentations. This method of presenting grammar is regularly used in grammar lectures in Year I Japanese at the University of Auckland. Minagawa, H. 2009. ‘The Structure of the Japanese Language: a friendly linguistic approach’ Special Intensive Seminar for Teachers. Perth, Australia. November. Moore, H. 2005. ‘The Interface of linguistics and language teaching: A metalanguage to assist in the teaching of Japanese grammar’ in Barbara Bourke (ed.) Innovative Practice in Japanese Language Education. Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane. pp 99-119. Moore, H. 2003. ‘The interface of linguistics and language teaching: the development of a multi-dimensional metalanguage to assist in the teaching of Japanese grammar’, 15th New Zealand Asian Studies Society International Conference, University of Auckland, Auckland, November. Moore, H. 2003. ‘Presenting Japanese Grammar with Effective use of the Colours, Shapes, and Animation Effects of PowerPoint Slides: A case of first year Japanese grammar lectures at the University of Auckland’. Biennial conference of Japanese Studies Association of Australia, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane. July. Moore, H. 2003. ‘The Japan Foundation Network Project: Workshops on Japanese Language. Dunedin, Christchurch, Wellington, Auckland, New Zealand. September.